As indicated above, the list drawn from the memory bank is restricted by the degree of detail in that memory. If the total list of occupations is seriously restricted, the occupations identified with each personal attribute will also be restricted. Even with the best present system there has been considerable compacting of occupational titles. Most clients who use the computer to obtain a list of occupations that relate to certain specified personal attributes will need to be alerted to the fact that the print-out includes representative titles only and should not be viewed as comprehensive. Clients may need counselor help in identifying additional titles that are closely related to those on the print-out. Although some systems are moving toward providing access to related titles, the client may very well need to turn to such supplementary sources as the Dictionary of Occupational Titles, the Guide for Occupational Exploration, Selected Characteristics, or Occupational Outlook Handbook in order to see titles that are more specific than the "teacher" that was used in the illustration above.
The computer is equally skillful in the narrowing process, in which the client is ordinarily focusing on identifying those occupational options that relate most closely to a combination of personal attributes that he or she feels is most reflective of self. It is a simple step to move from asking the computer "What occupations in the memory bank involve mechanical activities?" to asking "What occupations in the memory bank that involve mechanical activities also involve high manual dexterity, work that is performed entirely indoors, don't require shift work, pay at least a specified annual income, and exist in this geographic region?" The combination of personal attributes and other factors can be manipulated in many ways, including most desired factors, excluding factors the person wishes to avoid, taking any one factor from a group of several, readjusting an earlier command to a more or less demanding level, and so forth.
At some point in the narrowing process, the list will have been reduced to the point where the client can be helped best by turning to sources with more data than can be included in the memory bank. When the client reaches this point, he or she is ready to use the types of resources. Clients often will need to be cautioned against accepting too literally a brief list of generic titles as the perimeters of their occupational possibilities. The computer can do a superb job of delivering its available information in innumerable combinations, but it cannot provide information not in the data bank, nor can it be sure that the client is asking the question in the same exact sense in which the programmer considered it when data were entered.
Making plans
Many parts of the planning phase can be incorporated in computer-assisted systems in ways that are very helpful to the client. Most obvious of these parts are those that deal with training and educational programs and those that relate to job-search procedures. Caution again is necessary to recognize that standardization of response is an inevitable aspect of computer usage. It is easy to overlook or disregard the individual's unique needs that always should be a major concern for the counselor. While most people can fit into the range of categories included in standardization systems, one should always be sensitive to the fact that the systems do not fit all people equally well.
Many computer-assisted systems handle information about educational and training programs in a fashion parallel to occupational information. This often means that files exist according to type and level of education, for example, apprenticeship programs, two-year schools, four-year schools, and graduate and professional schools. A user can readily identify schools at the appropriate level that offer desired programs and then, by using personally important other variables, narrow the list as far as he or she wishes.
Job-search procedures vary considerably among systems. Many include at least basic information on how one prepares for specific occupations and the types of work settings in which those occupational members are found. The best statewide systems are incorporating information from the State Employment Service including such data as actual vacancies, expected hiring numbers, and salary and wage data. Because such information is so volatile, currency and comprehensiveness are still difficult to acquire and maintain.
In summary, the present state of the art suggests that computer-assisted programs have limited value in identifying, assessing, and helping the client understand his or her psychological world and personal attributes. However, the systems are both efficient and helpful in assisting the client acquire occupational information and match it against various combinations of personal attributes during the expanding and narrowing phases. Similarly, the systems are highly useful in relating educational and training opportunities to personal plans and characteristics. Finally, the systems provide only limited help in job-seeking and placement activities. Computer-assisted systems are useful supplements to counselors, particularly in the middle sections of the career counseling process; even in those areas, constant counselor monitoring and surveillance is advantageous.
Effective Considerations
Making a decision about using a computer-assisted career guidance system, like other important decisions in life, requires careful study of many factors. Thoughtful reflection on the best available information and consideration of all appropriate alternatives are more likely to lead to satisfying choices than hasty judgments based on inadequate information. Often, there is a chasm between the ideal solution and what is realistically possible, so that we must look for ways to bring the two sides as close together as possible and find ways to bridge the remaining gap. We will discuss briefly some of the major questions to be considered in preparing for such a decision. Each local situation will include other factors that warrant major attention in the decision-making process.
What clientele will be served?
The starting point is to identify the various populations to be served by the system. If the site is a high school, or includes a group of high schools, the population is clearly different from that encountered in a community college, university, or local agency serving out-of-school adults. What are their needs, both as seen by themselves and by the counseling staff? What age range is likely to be included in the user population? What educational, reading ability, and general ability ranges exist? What range of career goals do they have, and what educational attainments are likely to be most representative?
If data have not already been obtained that adequately describe the user population, a carefully developed needs survey will be required to provide this basic information. Very few programs presently incorporate sufficient flexibility to serve broadly diverse populations equally well. Thus it is likely, if the variation is great, that some members will be less well-served than others. A crucial question then arises regarding which section of the continuum should receive major attention, or how much depth and specificity can be sacrificed to obtain broader applicability.
User clientele is a broad term that certainly includes those individuals for whom the programs and information systems have direct applicability. The term is not restricted just to that group, however, because there are other users in most settings whose needs also warrant consideration. Counseling center staff, administrative personnel, cooperating agencies or office staffs, and, in educational settings, such added groups as instructional faculty, placement officers, and others may also have needs or involvement that must not be overlooked.
What is the staff's basic philosophy?
Some systems primarily provide excellent programs of educational and occupational information, some focus primarily on teaching the decision making process, and others emphasize certain counseling functions. The counselor, or counseling staff, must determine the role of computerized equipment in the people-helping process of career counseling. Clearly, the computer-assisted system must be compatible with the viewpoint of those individuals who are in positions that enable or retard user access to equipment.
Probably one of the most frequent errors committed by individuals making some major purchase is to go shopping to see what is available before first deciding as clearly as possible what is needed and wanted. The result is that the shopper is much more vulnerable to glib sales talk, impressive and showy "features," bargain prices, and similar distracting and often irrelevant factors.
One necessary early decision is that of choosing between buying a computer or a computer-assisted system. The major argument for focusing on hardware only would be that the purchase cost is less and one is then free to program the computer entirely according to local needs. The often unspoken disadvantage of such a choice is that, while programming is relatively simple, it is time-consuming, and requires regular and periodic updating by someone who likes and can do programming. Most counselors are probably too busy to devote the time needed to acquire the necessary skill and to commit the regular time required for updating memory files. The major advantage of a computer-assisted program is that the software has been developed by professionals to do what the specifications describe, and usually there is provision for either periodic updating of files or distribution o replacement files to assure a relative degree of currency.
Some counselors who develop an interest in a computer or computer assisted program may discover that-their work site already owns or has access to computer services for other functions.
Many benefits can be derived from equipment that is already in place. Student records can be maintained in a computer file that can be easily updated, readily recalled, and duplicated. Student files can be classified in various ways so that students with a wide variety of special needs can be easily identified. Student progress can be monitored as additional information is incorporated into the file. Computer time can also be made available to supplement instruction in those classes where such benefits are readily evident.
Participation in one of the national systems offers tremendous advantage for most counselors. The system usually will be well established and its usefulness and viability will have been clearly demonstrated. The software has been prepared by knowledgeable professionals who are adept at maximizing delivery. The system usually incorporates a regular plan for maintaining currency and often for using special files or programs that have local significance.
Another issue to be faced is whether the computerized program is to be used primarily to supplement counselor services or whether it is to be used primarily in lieu of a counselor. If the plan is to supplement a counselor, the system can be narrower in range, for example, delivering services primarily within the middle phases of career counseling while the counselor helps clients prepare for computer use and follows through on previous computer use. If the computer is to serve as a counselor substitute, a much wider program will be needed to help clients identify personal attributes as well as make plans for career development. The issue basically is whether the computer system is to be an information system or a guidance system.
Schenk, Murphy, and Shelton (1980) describe the development of a low-cost computerized system designed to serve primarily as a supplementary outreach program on a single college campus. The system uses hardware existing on campus and software that has been locally developed through collaboration of counseling center staff and computer center staff. Additional software providing national data has been purchased from national consortia.
Finally, another decision must be made concerning operational plans: Is it expected that the equipment will be operated by clients, by peer helpers or nonprofessional aides, or by the counselor? If clients are to be responsible for operation, the system must be relatively simple or "user friendly," and must include modules that explain clearly how one proceeds.
Adding a computerized system to an ongoing counseling program involves major changes in procedures, responsibilities, and activities if the system is to be used cost-effectively. Even though equipment costs have dropped precipitously in recent years, a computerized system still represents a major investment for most organizations. Budgetary questions inevitably arise: Can we afford it? What must we forgo if we proceed? Will it pay off in terms of increased or more effective service? How about upkeep, operational, and replacement costs? Will prices come down if we wait another year or two? Suppose we buy all their stuff and it becomes obsolete in a few months? Are we ready and able to make the changes that will permit us to capitalize on computer usage? Clearly, administrators and staff must evaluate the impact on all aspects of the existing program as the decision is considered.
Do we have special needs or circumstances to consider?
When an unusually tall individual shops for a new car, he or she pays special attention to the amount of head room available to the driver, but shoppers of average height disregard this factor entirely. If this characteristic is overlooked, the very tall driver will be reminded of the error every time he or she drives, either by bumping against the roof or by uncomfortably hunching forward to avoid that bump. Similarly, one must look for those distinguishing characteristics that are unique to a particular setting, clientele, or staff. Once those special features are identified, their possible impact on the selection of a computer system can be evaluated. In some cases they take on overriding importance, at other times they are likely to be irrelevant, but they must be considered. The variety of possibilities is so great that it is almost impossible to set parameters. Some possibilities include the existence of equipment within the organization that can be accessed easily and inexpensively, the opportunity to use equipment cooperatively with other organizations, an unusually homogeneous clientele, or local circumstances that moderate or limit client access to educational and occupational opportunities, to name a few.
The above questions are only suggestive of the many that must be clarified before considering the various available systems. Once the staff is ready to consider the various options, it is time to consult with other organizations that have already installed systems, gather printed material on each system that might warrant consideration, participate in demonstration and talk to representatives of the available systems. Riesenberg (1983) provides a summary of factors to consider when evaluating computerized systems and includes a brief checklist and rating system to help identify the program that best meets local needs. Maze and Cummings (1982) suggest helpful formula that permits useful comparisons for determining user cost of various programs. Jacobson and Grabowski (1982) present criteria that identify the various evaluative factors considered in developing recommendations for a statewide system in Illinois.
