The counselor can use the counseling relationship to help the client gain understanding of his or her behavior. Carkhuff (1971) suggests steps that can be taken by the counselor to assist in self-exploration. Hansen, Stevic, and Warner (1977) also describe the process of helping the client in self-exploration move gradually to deeper exploration that will lead to insight, self-understanding, and the initiation of action. Although behavior can be changed without developing client understanding and insight, change is more likely to contribute to client well-being and self-actualization if it is consciously understood by the client.
When the client reaches the point in the counseling process where the need for new behaviors or the changing or elimination of old ones is recognized, there are several techniques that the counselor can use to facilitate the change. Basically, the process of instigating new behaviors requires the development of a reward system that reinforces and emphasizes the desired action. Changing or modifying existing behavior involves helping the client to view the modification as desirable and to build a self-disciplining or -rewarding system that accomplishes the change. Extinguishing behaviors involves helping the client to view the present behavior as undesirable and controllable and to develop a method (often a reward system) for eliminating the action.
Krumboltz and Thoresen (1969) have discussed various techniques for changing behavior and have included numerous examples of effective application.
The strategies of social modeling, role play, and simulation are all applicable to behavioral change, particularly in helping a client acquire new behavior.
The most frequently used technique for modifying behavior is some variation of the reinforcement principle. This principle suggests that the strength of a response (behavior) depends upon its result. If the result is favorable, pleasant, or good (as viewed by the person) the behavior is likely to be repeated-in other words, it is reinforced. If the action does not result in an "acceptable'* reward it is less likely to occur in the future. Although this appears simple and straightforward, presumably producing "good" behavior and eliminating "bad" behavior, it does not always work that way. Sometimes the individual gains satisfaction from behavior that others might view as unsatisfactory because the reward system was inappropriate or distorted. Sometimes the learning situation is too limited or restricted to allow appropriate experiences to occur. Occasionally old behaviors that are recognized as unsatisfactory are retained because it seems so hard to lean new replacements. The counselor using this technique deliberately attempts to strengthen those behaviors that are agreed by client and counselor to be favorable or positive and to weaken those that they have agreed are unsatisfactory or counterproductive.
The use of reinforcement strategies is often called behavior modified tool. Considerable research has demonstrated its usefulness in replacing ineffective behavior with more appropriate action (Premack, 1965; Ullmai and Krasner, 1965; Cohen, 1968; Kanfer and Phillips, 1970). Elementary teachers have often used token systems to accelerate learning activities combined with complimenting and praising positive behavior while ignoring inappropriate or attention-seeking activity.
Changing behavior is a complex task that can be accomplished only incrementally over considerable time. Reinforcement strategies can be used successfully to accomplish these devised changes. The process requires that counselor and client agree specifically on the response to be reinforced (including the appropriate circumstances and the minimum amount of response required), select suitable reinforcing rewards, and establish a means of monitoring the behavior and dispensing the reward at the proper time. Some behavior can be assessed in terms of frequency (the number of cigarettes smoked per day) or in units of time (lengthening the time spent studying assignments) or in completing a complex series of items (researching, writing, and turning in a major course paper on time).
Effective remarks (reinforcers) must fit the specific client; some rewards are useful with one client but not with another. Social reinforcement -verbal or nonverbal signs of approval, praise, attention, or recognition by others-is effective with many people. This can be as simple as an appropriately timed smile or congratulatory slap on the back or as formal as the granting of a certificate or diploma. Verbal feedback on the progress being made is effective when the task can be divided into relatively small units. Those individuals who do not respond to social reinforcement may reach positively to tangible rewards (the token system). The reward can be toys, candy, money, or tokens that can be exchanged for various rewards or any concrete item identified by the client as valuable. Another type of reinforcement is access to some desired activity. Numberless little boys have been kept at their piano lessons by the promise that "as soon as you play the last piece perfectly, you may go outdoors and play ball."
Dispensing the reward at the appropriate time can be done by the counselor, the client, or by some other individual. The counselor has probably been reinforcing behavior throughout the counseling process, so there are many situations in which he or she is the logical person to provide reinforcement. The client, if he or she is willing and able to accept the responsibility, can dispense the reward. The advantage to this approach is that the client is required to accept and develop responsibility for his or her actions. Parents, teachers, friends, spouses, or significant others can also observe behavior and reinforce appropriate actions.
Eliminating undesirable behavior involves a process quite similar to that used to modify or change behavior. Stopping smoking is an example of extinguishing behavior. It may be approached in a "cold turkey," substitution, delaying, or self-disciplinary manner. The counselor's task is to help the client view the behavior as undesirable and to help select and implement an appropriate strategy for eliminating the behavior.
The principle involved is similar to that of reinforcement. If behavior occurs because the individual views the result as rewarding, then that behavior can be eliminated either by removing the reward or by making the reward undesirable. Sometimes the reward obtained by the individual for inappropriate behavior is positively reinforced, for example, the attention-seeking behavior of a child who obtains the desired attention. Sometimes the behavior is negatively reinforced or used to remove some threat, as when an individual isolates himself or herself from others because of fear of rejection.
The "cold turkey" approach to extinguishing behavior is difficult but effective when the client can be motivated sufficiently to apply the self-discipline required. Social reinforcement often is used to help the client through those periods when urge or pressure for participation in the undesired behavior is strongest. Alcoholics Anonymous has used this approach in overcoming alcoholic dependence, and it is also a common treatment for substance abuse.
Substitution is probably the most frequently used method for eliminating undesired behavior. This is the modification process described above, in which a new behavior is substituted for an old behavior. Many former smokers have tried this system by reaching for candy or gum when they felt the desire for a cigarette. This example demonstrates the need for careful selection of an appropriate substitute behavior, since many previous smokers who switched to candy soon found that they then needed a weight-reduction program.
The delaying system for eliminating behavior requires the individual to stretch out the time between behavioral incidents. For example, if a smoker has been consuming a pack of cigarettes a day, he or she can be helped to reduce that to ten cigarettes a day by waiting longer between smokes, and then to five and then to two and then to none at all. Similarly, the student who can only study for ten minutes at a time can be helped to build that to twenty and to forty minutes and then an hour, and so on to the agreed goal.
Undesirable behavior can also be eliminated by helping the client to develop self-management techniques. This strategy places the responsibility for eliminating the behavior on the client and helps the client assume responsibility for self. Hackney and Cormier (1979) discuss ways in which the client can be taught to engage in self-monitoring, self-reward, and self-contracting as methods for changing or extinguishing behavior.
Irrational thoughts, attitudes, fears, and worries can be dealt with using the same kinds of strategies used to develop, modify, or extinguish behavior. Assistance in overcoming fears or troublesome attitudes is sometimes provided by using systematic desensitization as described by Wolpe (1958). In this technique the counselor first teaches the client methods of deep muscle relaxation, then helps the clients to arrange the aspects of the fear or anxiety in a hierarchy from least to most frightening. Finally, the counselor helps the client to maintain a state of deep relaxation while confronting or considering the least disturbing aspect on the hierarchical list. If this can be done by the client, he or she is then encouraged to face the next-weakest aspect on the list. When the client can deal with this idea and maintain the state of relaxation, client and counselor progress to the next step on the list and continue this system until all aspects of the fear can be encountered.
Cognitive restructuring and thought-stopping are procedures suggested by Hackney and Cormier (1979) to assist clients in replacing illogical thoughts or anxieties with positive or self-enhancing views. Clients are taught how to identify negative attitudes, how to interrupt them, and then how to switch to coping thoughts.
Need for skill acquisition
Social graces, how to study, managing a checking account, driving a car, preparing an IRS 1040, or dealing kindly and effectively with others can all be mastered by "how-to-do-it" procedures. Where needed skills are relatively simple and easily learned, the counselor may assume a teaching role and directly assist the client in developing competency. A common sequence for teaching skills is to use social modeling followed by role playing and rehearsal, then trying new skills first in simulated situations and next in controlled-reality settings. Another technique involves the use of exercises or similar programmed materials that are designed to develop the specific skills. Some of these are designed to maximize self-learning. Often these materials can be incorporated in the role playing, simulation, and other tryout experiences to assure that the client has developed proficiency at the agreed-upon level.
We are not concerned here with acquisition of vocational skills used in learning or performing occupational tasks. We are focusing here on acquiring needed skills that either will permit the client to overcome obstacles that prevent developing and implementing effective career choices, or will help the client build new approaches to planning and fulfilling career plans. These skills can range from overcoming educational deficiencies, such as penmanship, reading ability, or numerical kills, to personal hygiene and care, to interpersonal actions such as manners, accepting supervision or direction, and dealing effectively with others.
Learning complex skills requires an instructor who possesses teaching skill as well as proficiency in the skill, and a considerable period of time for mastery by the recipient. Consequently, attempting to meet client needs of his type within the counseling relationship may be impractical, inefficient, and a misuse of counseling time. The counselor will need to know or be able to find referral resources to which the client can be sent to learn complex skills.
Local educational institutions, mental health centers, other agencies, and counselors familiar with local resources can be helpful in identifying possible references. Because the counselor must respect and protect the client's well-being, referrals can be made only with care. Ascertaining that the reference meets ethical and quality standards and is appropriate for this specific client is a necessary prelude to actual referral.
