Jacobson and Grabowski (1982) describe existing systems as belonging to one of three categories: batch-process, online career information systems, and online career guidance systems. Batch-process systems are described as those where the user has no direct access to the computer. Online career information systems prepare personal data or information requests on a form that is forwarded to a Central Processing Unit, and receives back a print-out of occupations or schools related to the characteristics submitted earlier. Online career information systems are essentially storage-and-retrieval systems that permit the user direct computer access, a variety of access systems with immediate feedback on the impact of each input, and an opportunity to adjust or erase each choice as it is made. Online career guidance systems provide the same help as online career information systems plus the capability of online instruction, simulation, and practice in values clarification and/or decision making, along with assessment of present level of career development and/ or online use of assessment instruments.
As stated earlier, Maze and Cummings (1982) report that both CIS and GIS are each presently used as the basic system in almost twenty regional or statewide programs. Both of these are examples of online career information systems. Although DISCOVER and SIGI have been adopted primarily on an individual institutional basis, they warrant consideration as representative of broader-based online career guidance programs.
The reader who desires more comparative information will find several sources helpful. Maze and Cummings (1982) devote a chapter to each of the four systems we will consider only briefly here; further, they include a chart that provides basic comparisons for eleven operational systems. Shat-kin (in C. Johnson, ed., 1983) describes the scope and content of seven operational systems based on information collected for an extensive comparison prepared by Katz and Shatkin (1980). Zunker (1981) briefly describes ten programs, including two that are essentially historical {ISVD and ECES) and two that are still mainly in the developmental stage {INQUIRY and FUTURE I) but which show the direction that development is taking. Because change is always likely, the most current information is probably directly available from the systems.
Career information system (CIS)
The CIS program was developed as the Oregon state system under one of the early Department of Labor grants in 1969, directed by Dr. Bruce McKinlay. A separate organization, National CIS, now exists to coordinate the application of CIS elsewhere and to provide additional services in the development of software, provision of training, and the like. From the beginning, CIS has emphasized the use of local or regional information; as a result, each local CIS system has modified and adjusted the basic plan to fit the needs in that user area. The system has also incorporated specific training and preparation for those individuals such as counselors, librarians, and teachers who are involved in helping clients use the system. The system is currently used in educational settings such as high schools and colleges, and in employment service agencies, prisons, rehabilitation agencies, and training programs.
The system includes several components. The access strategy, called QUEST, is a brief twenty-five-item questionnaire related to self-estimates of physical limitations, geographic preferences, anticipated educational level, aptitudes, interests, and desired beginning wage. Several QUEST items are based on occupational factors identified by Department of Labor analysis of occupations. QUEST is available online or in a needle sort format (notched cards that can be sorted with a needle-like device). The user is provided a print-out of occupations related to his or her combined QUEST responses. The occupational descriptions are brief 300-word summaries of between 250 and 550 occupations, including duties, pay, aptitudes, work setting, hiring practice, outlook, and current employment. Information is local, state, and nationally based, and regularly updated.
In addition to QUEST and the Occupational Description file, most CIS systems include a Preparation file and a Bibliography file in the occupational information section and a Program file and School file in the educational information section. The Preparation file identifies ways to prepare for an occupation and includes information on skills needed, licensing, and a cross-reference to related postsecondary training. The Bibliography file lists the most pertinent published sources for further information on each occupation. The Program file includes information on postsecondary educational programs in the CIS site area; for example, Oregon CIS lists all postsecondary programs in the state. The information includes a description of degrees offered, specialties, program objectives, courses, and lists of schools that offer die program. The School file contains information on all the two- and four-year colleges and proprietary schools in the area. Institutions in the School file can be compared simultaneously, three at a time, on sixty-five different information topics. In addition to the above files, Oregon CIS includes six files, some of which are used in other CIS programs. These additional files include an Attribute file showing QUEST responses related to each occupation, an Employment file that aids in job search, a Visit file that includes names of individuals working in each occupation who are willing to discuss the occupations with CIS users, a Clubs file that identifies career-exploratory clubs in the state, a National School file listing 1700 four-year colleges in other states, and a Financial Aid file that helps a prospective student determine the amount of aid he or she might expect while attending particular schools.
The User's Handbook includes instructions for operating the system as well as the QUEST items, and users are expected to complete QUEST and read the instructions before using the system. Additional help is included in the system. Most users find the system easy to use, interesting, and helpful. The average online time is thirty minutes per use, and many users return for further information at least once within the year. The information files can be accessed directly, but if a user wants to include QUEST information he or she must start over if he or she returns at a later time.
Maze and Cummings (1982) report that CIS has been adapted to more than ten models of computers to meet the needs of various regional and state users. Per-user cost is reduced by the relatively brief time needed on the terminal, but increased by the somewhat higher cost of obtaining and maintaining local data. Because CIS is used in several different settings, there is likely to be considerable variation in charges by participating agencies.
Factors that might be considered as limitations by some evaluators could well be counted as assets by others. No attempt is made by the system to provide guidance for the user beyond the items in QUEST that are used to narrow the list of occupations considered by the user. CIS does not incorporate any online assessment, so clients may be uncertain of personal attributes or characteristics they could profitably identify in the interaction with the computer. Counselor help will often be needed before the user is ready to use the system. Didactic modules that teach the client how to use CIS, or that explain the available system, do not exist online. This information is available to the client in the User's Handbook. A further limitation can also arise from the basic concept on which CIS has been developed, that is, the flexibility that allows the system to emphasize local information and adjust to local clientele needs can result in variable quality of information between CIS franchises. The local quality is primarily dependent on the regularity of updating and the thoroughness and precision used in acquiring the basic data used in updating.
Guidance information system (GIS)
The Guidance Information System is probably the most widely used of existing systems, with reported use in the fall of 1982 at more than 400 locations. Nationally, GIS is operated by Time Share Corporation, a part of Houghton Mifflin Company. GIS provides access to national data in six files: occupations, four-year colleges, two-year colleges, graduate schools, financial aid information, and armed services occupations. The occupations file contains over 1000 primary occupational listings with reference to another 2500 related jobs; the armed services file contains information on over 100 military occupations; the two- and four-year college files include information on over 3400 educational institutions; and the graduate school file has information on 1500 such schools. In addition to these national files, local or regional information files can be developed covering such topics as vocational schools, local financial aid, and local human services. Local occupational information can now be incorporated with the national file so that the user obtains both national and local information in those occupations where local information has been developed, often about half of the occupations in the national file. The overall aim of GIS is to deliver to the user information that is useful in the career decision-making process.
Information in the files is arranged according to groups of characteristics or attributes. For example, the occupations file includes data on interests (11 characteristics), aptitudes (10 characteristics), physical demands (12 characteristics), work conditions (9 characteristics), lifestyle (16 characteristics), salary (12 characteristics), employment potential (5 characteristics), education and training (21 characteristics), and other qualifications (5 characteristics). The four-year college file is arranged according to academic program (approximately 450 characteristics), location (68 characteristics), type of institution (14 characteristics), undergraduate enrollment (11 characteristics), control (2 characteristics), religious affiliation (5 characteristics), accreditation (5 characteristics), faculty (2 characteristics), admissions information (13 characteristics), academic characteristics of freshmen (22 characteristics), admissions policies (15 characteristics), calendar plan (6 characteristics), degree requirements (3 characteristics), student body data (5 characteristics), annual costs (24 characteristics), residence policies (11 characteristics), financial aid (13 characteristics), special programs (27 characteristics), ROTC (4 characteristics), campus life (25 characteristics), athletic programs (129 characteristics), and athletic scholarships (86 characteristics).
Efficient use of terminal time requires the user to give prior consideration to those characteristics that are important to him or her. This can be done either independently or with the counselor, and many GIS sites have locally developed worksheets that facilitate identifying the characteristics the user wants to include. As the various characteristics are entered, the computer immediately responds with the number of occupations or schools remaining on the list, so that the user can see at once the impact of that particular characteristic. If the user previously has identified the characteristics he or she is most interested in, die required terminal time is usually not more than ten or fifteen minutes.
The user can obtain general or detailed information about occupations or schools in which he or she is interested. The PRINT command can be used to obtain general information about a specific occupation or school or about several occupations or schools. His ITEMIZE command can be used similarly to obtain detailed information about either a single occupation or school or about several. If desired, detailed information about specific sets of characteristics can be obtained without itemizing all of the information in the file. This request for general or detailed information about one or more occupations or schools is labeled the direct method. Obviously, it is most useful when the client has an occupation or school in mind and wants to obtain information about it. The armed services file works only with this method; all other files can also be approached in this way.
The search method is probably more frequently used. This approach is designed to help the user who wants to know what occupations or schools would meet characteristics or requirements he or she might have in mind. Local worksheets for the various files are usually arranged so that they list brief identifiers for each of the characteristics included in the file. The user is asked first to identify those characteristics to be included, those to be excluded, and those that can be combined on an either/or basis. Next, the user is asked to arrange these marked items in a hierarchy with the most important item, either inclusion or exclusion, listed first. Summary sheets are often provided for this ranking. The ADD command is used to enter those characteristics to be included and the SUBTRACT command is used for excluded items. If combined items exist on the list, the EITHER/OR command tells the computer to include any occupation or college that has at least one of the listed characteristics. Starting with all occupations or schools in the file being searched, the system reports after each entry the number that remains. As each ADD or SUBTRACT is made, the number qualifying dwindles. When those occupations or schools remaining in the list number twenty-five or fewer the users can ask for the names of those remaining. This list can then be used with the PRINT or ITEMIZES commands described above. If the user enters a command that reduces the list too drastically, or changes his or her mind about the characteristics, the DELETE command can be used to eliminate that characteristic from the search. The user has great flexibility in organizing the search and can capitalize on personal preferences and change directions during the search. He or she can also move from one file to another easily, for example, from the occupation file where possible jobs were identified to one of the school files to explore information about relevant preparatory programs.
The GIS Guide is a user handbook that explains how the system operates and includes a description of each characteristic included in the national files. The Guide is revised regularly and distributed to centers using GIS. In addition to the GIS Guide there are Indices for each of the national files. Each Index is most useful for the user who wishes to apply the direct method. For example, the Occupations Index arranges occupations according to a cluster system, the Dictionary of Occupational Titles code number, and alphabetically. Additional supplementary materials are available.
Most clients will want and/or need counselor help both before and after terminal use. Although the various characteristics included in the various files are clear and easily understood, their relationship to the client's psychological world becomes more apparent in a counseling session. Similarly, the final print-out of the narrowed list of occupations or schools may well leave the user with a sense of lack of closure. The counselor can help the user consider exploratory steps that can be taken next to acquire the additional information on the listed items that will lead to decision making and subsequent planning.
Discover
The development of DISCOVER has been largely the work of Jo Ann Harris-Bowlsbey and, in part, is an outgrowth of her earlier effort on CVIS (Computerized Vocational Information Service), one of the early retrieval systems that gained widespread usage. If the early batch-processed systems are considered to be first generation, and the online information retrieval systems such as CIS, CVIS, and GIS are labeled as second generation, then DISCOVER and SIGI (to be discussed later) are clearly third-generation systems. Rayman and Bowlsbey (1977) describe the development and content of the various components. Much of this information is now incorporated in DISCOVER and IBM promotional literature. Rayman, Bryson, and Bowlsbey (1978) describe the procedures used to field-test the system in two Baltimore schools.
DISCOVER was developed as a systematic career-guidance program to assist in career development activities at the secondary school level. The career-development process is viewed by Rayman and Bowlsbey (1977) as consisting of the five following components:
- Self-information, including values, interests, and competencies.
- Exploration of occupations in a systematic way.
- Teaching and low-risk practice of decision making.
- Relationship of self-information to occupational alternatives.
- Informational assistance with implementation of choice.
Because of the numerous modules included in the system, DISCOVER is designed to operate on an IBM mainframe computer, either the IBM System/370 or IBM 4300 series. The system includes a memory bank that maintains information on what modules had been used earlier and the results of that usage, so that clients may use the system over a period of months or even years, readily review previous action, and move ahead to new modules or rework previously completed sections. The computer system usually includes a CRT terminal so the user operates it with a light pen rather than using the usual typewriter-style terminal. The system includes a printer so the user can have a print-out if desired. The mainframe computer permits multiple terminals to operate simultaneously. Seven large data banks provide the basis for user activity. These include occupations, four-year colleges, two-year colleges, technical and specialized schools, apprentice programs, military programs, and graduate/professional schools.
The system consists of several modules, an explanatory package, and twenty others that fall into three groups. All modules provide interaction with the user. Some modules incorporate materials developed by others, but most are original in nature. The modules and a brief description of each are as follows:
00 Entry This module teaches the terminal to the user and explains the system. It also monitors each individual's use of the system and stores the entry and exit points for later reference. It also includes an online survey of career development, the results of which serve as a basis for the computer to suggest the most appropriate modules.
Values and decision-making education
1A Understanding My Values This module contains experiences designed to help the user to define values, analyze personal values, and decide on actions to implement those values. The nine occu-pationally related values are similar to those included in SIGI except for interest field, and are based on the work of Katz.
IB Playing a Values Game This module teaches the user the nine work-related values in a board-game approach. The user can also relate the individual values to occupations at various levels and can combine various values to search for occupations that relate to the given combinations. The user ultimately identifies his or her personal weight for each value, and this rating is retained for later use.
2A Learning to Make Decisions This module uses an example and flowchart method to teach the decision-making process. Several exercises are included to provide practice in the sequence of steps.
2B Practicing Career Decisions This module uses Super's career-decision tree to demonstrate how decisions affect occupational choice. Each of twenty branches represents a group of occupations. Key decisions that lead to entry into each group are illustrated, and the user can plot a course along one or several branches. Simulation is used to permit exploration of the impact of various decisions.
Relating and exploring occupations
3 A Learning How Occupations Can Be Grouped: This module introduces the user to two classification systems-the American College Testing Program plan of data-people-things-ideas used in the World of Work map, and Holland's typology. Exercises are provided to help the user develop skill in using these systems, and responses are monitored to determine if more practice is needed. 3B Browsing Occupations Using Holland's two-letter codes, the user can explore up to 300 occupations represented by those two-letter codes. Lists of relevant occupations are provided, from which the user can select titles and receive a brief description of the work setting and work tasks for each.
4 Reviewing My Interests and Strengths: This module delivers Holland's Self-Directed Search online. The results are interpreted online.
5 Making a List of Occupations to Explore: This module provides the user with five ways to develop a list of personal vocational options. These include using personal work values, using SDS results, selecting titles from a terminal-provided list, combining selected occupational characteristics, and relating school subjects to occupations.
6 Getting Information about Occupations: This module provides twenty-one questions that the user can select to obtain information about an occupation. These include questions about duties, potential benefits, future outlook, and additional sources of information. It is expected that the user will leave this module with a list of occupations in which he or she has serious interest.
7 Narrowing My List of Occupations: This module is designed to help the user narrow his or her list still further and ultimately to arrange the remaining items in priority order. Emphasis is placed on additional information, identified work values, and desired level of training, interests, and competencies.
Career planning
8 Exploring Specific Career Plans: The user starts with one specific occupation in mind, and this module identifies the possible paths of preparation leading to the occupation. The user chooses a path to explore in depth and branches to the appropriate module of the remaining nine modules.
8 A Local Jobs: This module provides information on how to seek a job. It may also provide a search strategy for finding a job in the local area if the local site has developed a job data bank.
8B Financial Aid: This module provides a definition of standard financial-aid terms, information on how to obtain financial aid including an online assessment of needs based on ACT's Family Financial Statement, and information about available sources of financial aid.
8C Apprenticeships: This module provides general information about apprenticeship programs and also search strategies for locating apprenticeship occupations. Local companies can be included if the data are developed.
8D Four-Year College Information and Search: This module includes information about college admissions and selection and about search strategy. The data file is based on information obtained from the American College Testing Program and includes the customary basic data about included institutions. The user obtains a list of schools that have the characteristics identified by the user as important.
8E Community and Junior Colleges: Like the four-year college module, this unit provides information about two-year schools and a search strategy.
8F Graduate and Professional Schools: This module includes information and search strategies for graduate and professional schools.
8G Technical and Specialized Schools: This module has the same structure as the preceding modules, focusing on technical and specialized schools.
8H Continuing Education General information about adult and continuing education and how to find such opportunities locally is included in this module. Local data can be added to the file if those data are developed.
8I Military Information and Search: This module answers questions about the military and provides a search strategy to find those military programs that provide training needed for entry into specific civilian occupations. The data are based on the Department of Defense's Military-Civilian Occupational Source Book.
The long list of modules clearly demonstrates that DISCOVER is far more comprehensive than the online retrieval systems such as CIS and GIS. The system is designed to assist in each step of the career-counseling process and assumes that counselors will not have sufficient time to provide the individual help that clients need. There are at present two versions of DIS-COVER, a secondary school form and a college/adult form. The modules are identical in nature and content, but labels and word usage have been adjusted for the two groups.
An important part of each module is the didactic material. This teaching material provides both basic information on the subject of the module and information on how to operate the module. The inclusion of assessment material such as Holland's Self-Directed Search makes it possible for a user to clarify his or her interests while online. Including both didactic and assessment materials relieves the counselor of some time-consuming tasks and also implies that the included material is the most appropriate for all users. The fact that it is primarily a self-contained career-guidance system makes it highly attractive to those settings where counseling services are staffed inadequately.
The national files are updated regularly. In the occupations file such information as salary, outlook, and training are checked yearly. The two-and four-year college files are checked annually also. Other materials are checked on a two- or three-year cycle. Local information will depend on the local plan for updating.
Because of the scope of materials included in the modules, using DIS-COVER is a time-consuming task. Jacobson and Grabowski (1982) estimate that seven hours are required to complete the entire process; Maze and Cummings (1982) report that as many as twelve hours can be required. All of this time is computer-connected time and therefore relatively costly per client. Further, since each user monopolizes a terminal for that time period, a relatively large number of terminals is required to operate the system, necessitating a larger capital investment. It is possible to use only selected portions of the system and thus shorten the process time. Maze and Cummings (1982) report average user time of three to four hours at one site.
Operation of DISCOVER requires access to a mainframe IBM computer. The DISCOVER Foundation has developed two programs designed for micro- and minicomputers. These are called DISCOVER II and EX-PLORE. Both maintain the general form of DISCOVER, but the first includes only four modules and the second only eight.
System of interactive guidance and information (SIGI)
SIGI is the outgrowth of nearly a decade of developmental effort by a research group led by Martin Katz at Educational Testing Service. It was originally intended for use by students in or about to enter two-year colleges. It is now applied more broadly, including usage in four-year schools and with out-of-school adults in a variety of settings.
The philosophical basis for SIGI proposes that values identification and clarification are basic to an effective career-decision process, involving evaluation of the rewards and risks that accompany each option. The SIGI system is a straightforward attempt to lead the user through six modules, called subsystems in SIGI, that teach that concept. The user is required to proceed in order through the sequence; however, after he or she has completed the entire process it is then possible to use any subsystem singly or in any order.
The series of subsystems is preceded by an introductory module that teaches the basic concepts used by the system and familiarizes the user with the subsystems he or she will encounter. Each system will be described very briefly, including the questions answered by that subsystem, then described in more detail. The subsystems include the following:
- Values. In this subsystem the user examines ten occupational values and establishes his or her weighting for each value. Questions addressed include "What satisfactions do you want in an occupation?" and "What are you willing to give up?"
- Locate. In this subsystem the user can select varying levels of five values at a time and obtain lists of occupations that meet that combination. Questions considered include "Where can you find what you want?" and "What occupations should you consider?"
- Compare. The user can contrast any three occupations at a time on a long list of informational questions in this subsystem. Questions answered include "What would you like to know about occupations?" and "Should you reduce your list?"
- Prediction. The user can determine probabilities of obtaining specified grades in key courses for the preparatory programs for selected occupations based on locally developed data. The questions addressed are "Can you make the grade?" "What are your chances of successfully completing the preparatory program?"
- Planning. The user can obtain information about the preparation paths for selected occupations, including courses to be completed and licensing or certification requirements. Questions considered include "How do you get from here to there?" "What steps do you take to enter this occupation?"
- Strategy. This subsystem evaluates occupations being considered in terms of rewards offered and risks involved. Questions answered include "Which occupations fit your values best?" "How do you choose between risky highly desirable occupations and those that are safer but less desirable?"
